Cleft Sentences & Pseudo Cleft Sentences

Cleft sentences sound really horrible and complicated and scare the crap out of some students but it is really not so complicated.

Cleft sentences are used to emphasise a noun(thing)

Base sentence - Andrzej went to Amsterdam last weekend

1st version - It was Andrzej who went to Amsterdam last weekend - focus on who
2nd version - It was Amsterdam that Andrzej went to last weekend - focus on where
3rd version - It was last weekend that Andrzej went to Amsterdam - focus on when

The base structure is

It + 'BE' + focus(noun) + relative clause

This is often used to correct people in spoken English

Q. Did Kamil go to Amsterdam last weekend?
A. No, it was Andrzej who went to Amsterdam last weekend. Kamil went to Berlin.

NB 'It' can be replaced by a noun phrase in certain circumstances

The reason Kamil went to Berlin was to play chess

Psuedo cleft sentences sound even worse  but are just as easy. They emphasise an action.

Base sentence - Norbert washed his socks last weekend.

1st version - What Norbert did was wash his socks last weekend. - focus on action and time
2nd version - What Norbert did last weekend was (to) wash his socks - focus on action

The base structure is

What + noun + 'BE' + focus (action)


This structure is often used to clarify things

Three cubed is equal to twenty-seven. What I mean is three times three times three is twenty-seven

Or your likes and dislikes

What I really like is eating chocolate in front of the TV :)

Or to correct people

Did you say you would give me your car?
No, what I said was that I will lend you my car for the week!

The Passive

The passive is a technique which is used to make language sound more natural. There are many different explanations and reasons some of which are clearer than others.

1. The object is more important than the subject.
2. The person doing the action is obvious or unknown.
3. We have just been introduced to the object and wish to continue talking about the object. (also described as newer information being added to the end of sentences)

An easy way to tell if a sentence should be active or passive is to decide whether the thing/person at the front of the sentence is doing or receiving the verb

If the person/thing doing the verb is first then it is a normal active sentence

'The boy kicked the football'


If the person/thing receiving the verb is first then it is passive

'The football was kicked by the boy'


Note that if we want to say who did the action in a passive sentence we use 'by', if we want to say how we use 'with'.

'The nail was hit with a hammer'


If you want to make an active sentence passive then it is quite easy

'The boy kicked the football' 


In this sentence the (main) verb (kicked) is in the past simple tense. The main verb always goes to 3rd form (past participle)

And now the magic which makes it really really easy. The verb 'be' takes the form of the original verb. So whatever happened to the original verb happens to 'be'. Here it is easy 'kicked' is past simple so the past tense of 'be' is 'was' (were) So

'The football was kicked (by the boy)'


It doesn't matter how complicated the original sentence is - use the same formula.

This time next week the government will be increasing taxes

Taxes will be being increased by the government this time next week

Relative Clauses

A relative clause can be compared to an adjective in that it gives extra information about a noun. They take the form 'Relative Pronoun + verb + phrase'

A relative pronoun takes the place of a noun and is one of the following

for People  - who
     Things - which
     Places - where
     Times - when
     Possessions - whose

Please note that possessions can include people and animals - 'This is the man whose dog smells.'


There are two types of relative clause - a defining relative clause and a non-defining relative clause.

A defining relative clause must be present as it defines the noun - it tells us exactly which noun.

 'This is the man whose dog smells.' - without the clause it has no sense.

A non-defining relative clause gives additional information and is not essential to the meaning. It is contained in commas and can be left out.

I met John, who was wearing a bright pink t-shirt, yesterday. - I met John yesterday still has perfect sense.

In defining clauses (only) we can use 'that' in place of 'who' and 'which' without changing the meaning. There are also occasions when we can leave out 'who', 'which' and 'that'. This can cause a few problems sometimes


'The lesson on relative clauses which Bob taught was a little complicated at times'


In this sentence 'which' refers to 'the lesson on  relative clauses'

In the second part 'the lesson on  relative clauses' is the object (ie what Bob taught)

So in this situation we can leave out the 'which' and the sentence.....

'The lesson on relative clauses Bob taught was a little complicated at times'


.....is correct.

It is also possible to leave out the relative pronoun and the verb 'be' in passive and continuous tenses.

I like watching people who are working hard. > I like watching people working hard :)


The second book which was written by Paulo Coehlo was also very popular
> The second book written by Paulo Coehlo ....

The first conditional and similar structures

We use the first conditional for things which are possible but not certain.

The structure is if + present simple, will + infinitive.

'If I see John, I'll (I will) tell him.'

The if clause or the main clause can come first. If the if clause is first then you need to put a comma (,) between the two clauses. If the main clause is first then no comma -

'I'll tell John if I see him.'

Instead of 'will' we can use 'might' for possibility and 'can' for ability -

 'If I see John, I can tell him' (if you want me to)

We can use 'Unless' to say 'if not' - 'I expect your homework if you don't tell me you have a problem'  =

 'I expect your homework unless you tell me you have a problem'

If something is certain you can use 'when' -


'I'll tell John when I see him this evening'

If one thing depends on another then we use 'as long as' -

'As long as you do the washing up, I'll dry the dishes.'

Verb patterns

When one verb is followed by a second verb the form of the second verb is dependent on the first verb. Underneath is a chart to help you learn some of them.

Present perfect simple & continuous

The present perfect simple is used to talk about results, states and single events.

I have read 3 books
I have been married for 7 years
I have been to Spain

Structure

+       subject + have/has + 3rd form
-        subject + haven't/hasn't + 3rd form
?        have/has + subject + 3rd form

We often use it to talk about things that have happened in the past without saying when. As soon as you can identify 'when' or you talk about a specific time you should switch to the past simple.

A 'I've been to Spain.'
B  'Really, when did you go?'


The present perfect continuous is often used to talk about the duration of an action - it is less common that the simple form

I have been waiting here for 3 hours

+      subject + have/has + been + verb-ing
-       subject + haven't/hasn't + been + verb-ing
?       have/has + subject + been + verb-ing

Has she been waiting long?